Benefits and Disadvantages of Standards to an Organization Essay - 1

Benefits and Disadvantages of Standards to an Organization - Essay Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that organizations use thousands of standards in their daily operations to increase the quality, enhance environmental management, for health protection and safety, and in risk assessment. Standards refer to the published documents that detail procedures and specifications designed for ensuring safety, reliability, and consistency in services, products, and systems. They establish a conventional language, which defines safety criteria and quality. A standard comprises of codes, handbooks, specifications and guidelines defining possible goals in an organization. Standards also refer to documents that provide the requirements, rules, and guidelines regarding a service, product, or process. Requirements are complemented by the description of the services, products, and the process. Standards depend on the consensus approved by the recognized body. They enhance achievement of the optimum degree in a given context. They enable formulation, impleme ntation, and issuing of the requirements. The process of standardization in any organization enhances the fitness of purpose by defining the ability for the fulfillment of purpose based on specified conditions. Standards enhance the identification of optimum operating parameters in performance processes. Standards lay the conditions in use of the process and provide for the evaluation of the product conformity. The suitability of a process used towards the fulfillment of the requirement is outlined by the standards. This is achieved through a deliberate process of standardization for goods and services, irrespective of the region of manufacture or location of the organization. Standards enhance variety reduction where the consumer knows exactly what they want, and this is critical in organizations to enhance balancing the varieties. Compatibility enhancement is achieved through the standards. The parallel incompatible processes are detrimental in any organization, but standards enha nce compatibility by enhancing recognition of codes at all times in all the processes. Safety is enhanced using the health and safety standards that outline the safety parameters and identification processes.

How the women in two stories are treated by the men in their lives Essay Example for Free

How the women in two stories are treated by the men in their lives Essay Examine how the women in two stories are treated by the men in their lives Two short fiction stories which show how women are treated by the men in their lives are The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion and Weekend. The first story is a pre-1914 story called The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion and it is written by Thomas Hardy. The story is set in 1801 and it was published in 1891.The other story is a more modern story as it is set in the late twentieth century and was published in 1981. It is called Weekend and it is written by a feminist writer called Fay Weldon. The main theme of The Melancholy of the German Legion is how a woman is treated with little independence and how the main female character, Phyllis Grove, tries to find her own freedom by forming a strong friendship with a German soldier that escalates into a relationship. Phyllis is a shy, young character who lives in a secluded manor house with her father, Dr Grove, who was a professional and well-respected gentleman. There now appears to be a lack of money in the Grove household. She is very wary of people due to her sheltered life of solitude, which is mainly the result of her fathers own seclusion, her social condition was twilight. She doesnt appear to have a job as she is the unmarried daughter and she has to look after her father. This was very common for women in the nineteenth century as they didnt have the freedom to go to work and make a career for themselves. Women who were of a low social class would have done very menial jobs, such as maid or dairy maid. Martha is the female in focus in the story Weekend. The story appears to be set in the late 1980s to the early 19990s. The social class of the family in focus is working class as they do not appear to be poor or extremely rich. Martha is a middle-aged market researcher who is married to Martin, a freelance designer and together they have three children called Jolyon, Jenny and Jasper. She has a rather hectic lifestyle looking after three children, running a home, holding down a full-time job and being at her demanding husbands beck and call there was the car to unpack and the beds to make up and the electricity to connect, and the supper to make and the cobwebs to remove. The main theme of this story is how hard Martha has to work and how little recognition she receives in return. She has to play the role of the happy little housewife to please her domineering husband and informs us of how hard her life was made by her husband, the man who is meant to love her. Despite the way she is treated by her husband, she is educated to university standard and she is most probably going to overtake her husband in earnings. The main male characters in The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion each treat Phyllis in a different manor. Her father, Dr Grove, seems very over-protective of her and likes his life of seclusion. This may be because he lost his wife and feels that it is his duty to make sure that no harm comes of Phyllis and that he thinks he knows what is best for his daughter. When Humphrey Gould asked Mr Grove for his daughters hand in marriage, Mr Grove accepted without even consulting Phyllis. Mr Grove considered this to be a good move for his daughter as Humphreys family had a respectable social position in the community and he could provide for her. Even though Mr Grove treats his daughter with the respect she deserves, he still refrains her from having her freedom and the right to chose who she wants to marry. Humphrey Gould himself was a thirty-year-old bachelor from an old local family, who was neither good-looking nor positively plain. He seemed extremely happy to have Phyllis as his wife-to-be and gave the impression that he would take good care of her and had great respect for her. He treated her as a lady with great respect, but despite the good image we get of Gould in the beginning of the story, we soon see a different side of him. He goes away to Bath and doesnt keep Phyllis informed of his whereabouts and she is left questioning whether the engagement is still on or not. When he eventually returns he tells her that he has married another young woman, who he describes as being a dear young belle. This action wasnt very thoughtful on his behalf and even though Phyliss didnt really want to marry him and didnt love him, she still fells slightly betrayed. The only male in The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion who doesnt treat women as though they are objects and treats Phyllis with the amount of respect and freedom she truly deserves is Matthaus Tina. He was a German soldier in the York Hussars regiment and was staying close to where Phyllis lived. He had travelled to England with his brother Christoph, due to The War of the Second Coalition, and had left his mother in his native town of Saarbuck. After Phyllis had first met Matthaus she couldnt stop thinking about him and described him as so striking, so handsome, and his eyes were so blue. He was twenty-two and had quite a high position in the German Army as a corporal. He treated Phyllis as though she were equal to him and there was no hint of a divide between them due to her being female. He respected her fully and never let her down, unlike Humphrey Gould who broke off the engagement. He may have treated her with more respect and freedom than the other main men in her life as he was German and in his country they may have been more hospitable towards women. Martin is the male in focus in Weekend and his is a very obnoxious character. He is married to Martha and he is a freelance designer and there are clues in the story which suggest that he is in his forties, for example he watches the BBC2 news, which is typical of a middle-aged person. Martin treats Martha as more of a servant than a wife and he puts all of the responsibilities onto her. He seems to think that he is too good to be doing housework and odd-jobs and Martha is left to do long lists of chores, prepare tea and sandwiches for the family: then she would strip four beds, the chores seem endless. Martin is also very particular about how he like things to be done, which means extra work for Martha. Martin thinks mash is stodgy and ordinary and instant mash is unthinkable, which means Martha has to take a long time to sautà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ the potatoes and he thinks pork is a dull meat if its not cooked properly, so she has to spend ages cooking it just how he likes it. Martha doesnt say much in the story as she cant get a word in edgeways because in his eyes he is the man of the house, even though Martha runs the household. She doesnt have much of a chance to voice her opinions directly, but she does voice them in her thoughts as the story is mainly written in first person narrative with her as the narrator. She helps us to get inside her head and with her use of lists she helps to inform us of just how many things she has to do. She seems to scared to disagree with Martin and goes along with whatever he says I expect your right, just to keep the peace. Martha and Phyllis are similar in many ways, even though they are in different situations and from different backgrounds. They are both overpowered by the men in their lives who are closest to them and they are both deprived of having their own lives. Neither of the women seem to have a say about what happens in their lives, for example Phyllis was told who to marry by her father and Martha was told what to with her life by her husband. Despite the number of similarities between the two women there are also some differences between them. Martha put up with her way of life and didnt question it much, but Phyllis did decide to change things. She chose to carry on the affair with Matthaus Tina as she saw a break from her regimented lifestyle and went against her fathers wishes. Phyllis became quite rebellious when she was planning to escape to Saarbuck with Matthaus and Christoph. This is something that Martha would never have considered doing. Both of the women are victims in each of the stories, but I think that Marthas suffering was worse than that of Phyllis as hers was constant and she never got a break from it. Phyllis is treated better than Martha in that respect as she had someone in her life who was treating her very well. That person was Tina as he was the only one who saw the true Phyllis and respected the true Phyllis. To me, Marthas victimisation is worse than that of Phyllis as in 1981 Martha should have had more chances and opportunities due to the development of society, than Phyllis did in1801. I felt very sympathetic towards both of the female characters due to the fact that they are seen as victims and I also felt sympathetic towards Matthaus Tina. I felt sympathetic towards him as he did so much for Phyllis and did his best to keep her happy. It was very sad when he was killed at the end of the story and I again felt very sympathetic towards Phyllis as she lost the one person she truly trusted. The rest of her life is touched by the scandal, even though she was blameless for what happened. The type of language used in each of the stories is suited to the time that it was written and they are very different to each other. The language in The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion is formal and uses traditional English, such as unsrupulous and melancholy, as that type of language would have been used in the nineteenth century. It contains more complex sentences than that used in Weekend and they are sometimes harder to comprehend. The narrative in The Melancholy Hussar of the German Legion starts in first person, which is Hardys narration to introduce the characters and scene to the reader. It then progresses into third person narrative to involve the reader in the story, before returning to first person narrative to tie of all loose ends in the story, for example Matthaus date of death. The use of third person narrative enables the reader to see more deeply into the story and become more involved in what is happening. The narrative style and language used in Weekend is less formal than that used in Hardys stories. There are many non-sentences, such as Katy versus Janet, which do not contain a verb and are more of a thought .There are many compound sentences that use words such as then, but, and, so, which helps Martha to express how many jobs she has to do. This use of language is well suited to the date in which the story was set. The role and rights of women changed quite a lot in the period of time between when the two books were written. In 1801, nobody had the chance to vote and your right to a say depended on your position in society. Men with homes got the vote in 1867, all men got the vote in 1916 and women didnt get the vote until 1926. This meant that for along time women were seen as being lower than men and were provided for by their husbands. Other turning points for women in this time span were that they were able to get jobs and were protected by The Sex Discrimination Act,1975. This explains why Martha had a job and Phyllis didnt, but there is still no explanation to support why Martha was treated so badly in modern day Britain. My conclusion is that Fay Weldon was trying to get across that some traditions never change.

Effects That Caffeine Consumption

Effects That Caffeine Consumption Caffeine is the most commonly used psychoactive substance in the United States (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Regular coffee drinkers consume an average of 200-500mg of caffeine per day (Julien, 2005). Caffeine is found in a broad variety of sources including coffee, tea, energy drinks, chocolate and some over the counter medications (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Upon consumption, caffeine reaches peak plasma levels in 30-75 minutes and has a half life of 3-7 hours when consumed in a single dose (Roehrs Roth, 2008). When consumed in greater quantities, the half life is extended (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Caffeines high rate of consumption may be due to the desirable effects it produces, such as increase mental alertness, improved flow of thought and of course, feelings of wakefulness (Julien, 2005). Caffeine is not without its undesirable effects; caffeine consumption may have a negative effect on tasks which require fine motor skills, complex arithmetic skills, or precise timing (Julien, 2005). Structurally, caffeine is similar to adenosine. In the brain, adenosine decreases neural firings and inhibits neurotransmitter release (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Caffeine works as an adenosine antagonist; blocking adenosine receptors in the brain. As a consequence, caffeine prevents adenosine from decreasing neural firings, leading to an increase in firings, and the stimulant effects caffeine is well known for (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Caffeines blocking of adenosine receptors leads to dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, causing caffeines alerting effects (Julien, 2005). While discontinuation of caffeine consumption may produce withdrawal symptoms, caffeine does not influence the dopaminergic structures associated with rewards and addiction (Julien, 2005). Typical withdrawal symptoms include headache, drowsiness, fatigue, and negative mood (Julien, 2005). It is often difficult to estimate the amount of caffeine a person consumes due to great variability in the amount of caffeine per beverage (particularly coffee), exclusion of new caffeinated products on questionnaires, and variation in consumption from day to day. It is also difficult to compare results between studies due to a great amount of variation in methods of measuring caffeine consumption levels (Shohet Landrum, 2001). A study by Shohet Landrum (2001) of undergraduate university students implemented the use of an updated version of the caffeine consumption questionnaire as well as looking at chronotype and age. The caffeine Consumption questionnaire decreases a great deal of inaccuracy of caffeine consumption measurement. Shohet Landrum (2001) found that the average participant in the study consumed 1597.6mg/week. They also found that level of caffeine consumption is positively correlated with age. It was speculated that this increase may be an effort to compensate for de creased metabolism and subsequent decrease in energy (Shohet Landrum, 2001). In the same study, there was no significant difference in caffeine consumption between males and females (Shohet Landrum, 2001). Caffeine consumption in the evening was higher among older people, who tended to be morning-types (Shohet Landrum, 2001). The effects that caffeine consumption has on sleep are vast. Orbeta, Overpeck, Ramcharrin, Kogan Ledski (2006) found in a study of American high school students that those who reported a high rate of caffeine consumption also reported more difficulty falling asleep and felt more tired in the morning. In a number of studies, caffeine administration in varying amounts significantly reduced total sleep time and increased sleep onset latency (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Some studies also found a reduction in percentage of slow wave sleep after caffeine administration (Roehrs Roth, 2008). In a study where caffeine was administered prior to sleep, EEG spectral power density was reduced in the .75 4.5 Hz band. In a parallel study, men were administered 200 mg of caffeine upon waking (07:00 h) still experienced a reduction in EEG spectral power density in the .75 4.5 Hz range in the subsequent night sleep (Landolt, Werth, Borbely, Dijk, 1995). In this same study, total sleep time and sleep eff iciency were reduced following caffeine administration in the morning. Power density was reduced in the .25 .5 Hz range, and enhanced in the 11.25 12.00 Hz and 13.25-14.00 Hz ranges for NREM sleep (Landolt et al., 1995). Though a single 200 mg dose of caffeine in the morning clearly influences sleep propensity and power density of the EEG in the subsequent sleep episode, there was no deterioration in subjective sleep quality, and there is not a severe disruption of sleep continuity (Landolt et al., 1995). In contrast, a study by Sanchez-Ortuno, Moore, Taillard, Valtat, Leger, Damien, Bioulac, and Philip (2005) found that up to eight cups of coffee consumed by regular coffee drinkers was not associated with reduced TST. There was also no relationship found between caffeine consumption and day time sleepiness in participants consuming up to eight cups daily (Sanchez-Ortuno et al., 2005). The chronotype of an individual may be related to caffeine consumption. Chronotypes are a preference for being active during a particular time of day (Giannotti, Cortesi, Sebastiani, Ottaviano, 2002). Some individuals may be categorized as Morning-Types. Morning Types prefer to wake early in the morning, retire earlier in the evening, and are most active in the early hours of the day, where as Evening-Types prefer to rise later, and engage in activities later in the day. Others may fall somewhere between the morning-type and evening-type extreme. Daily physiological rhythms such as core body temperature, blood pressure and hormone secretions vary from one chronotype to another. Morningness and Eveningness also tend to vary with age, with older adults generally demonstrating a preference for morning activity, and younger adults a preference for evening activity (Giannotti et al., 2002). A study by Giannotti et al. (2002) of adolescents found that as they approached young adulthood, t heir circadian preference shifted more towards Eveningness. Giannotti et al. (2002) also found that Evening types tended to consume more caffeine, particularly in the morning. This may be due to forced pressure to adhere to a schedule more appropriate for those with a preference for morning activity (Giannotti et al., 2002). In a study of both men and women with different, but fixed work schedules by Ana Aden (1994) it was found that caffeine consumption increased with preference for evening. Evening types consumed more caffeine than neutral types, and neutral types consumed more caffeine than morning types. Interestingly, a large percentage of evening types were found to be caffeine abusers. 500 mg or more of caffeine per day was considered abuse (Aden, 1994). Adolescent evening types showed a more irregular sleep schedule and poorer subjective sleep quality in a study by Giannotti et al. (2002). Evening types also had higher sleep/wake behaviour scores than morning types, an indication of more sleep problems in evening types (Giannotti et al., 2002). Evening type adolescents reported consuming more sleeping pills than morning types as well as more day time sleepiness (Gianotti et al., 2002). Evening types had a greater tendency to fall asleep at school, and attention problems as well (Giannotti et al., 2002). An increase in the accessability of technology like computers, internet, television, and MP3 players may also impact caffeine consumption as well as sleep. A study by Calamaro, Mason, Radcliffe (2009) found that adolescents with higher scores on the multi-tasking index also reported higher caffeine intake, increase daytime sleepiness, increased incidents of falling asleep at school, and decreased total sleep time. Only 20% of the teenagers in this study received the recommended 8-10 hours of sleep for their age (Calamaro et al., 2009). 33% reported falling asleep at school on a regular basis, and 37% and 42% take naps on school days and weekends respectively (Calamaro et al., 2009). Clearly there is a great deal of interaction between caffeine consumption and chronotype. There is also apparent interaction between caffeine consumption and sleep quality. Chronotype had an influence on sleep quality in adolescents, There is also a relationship between caffeine consumption and sleep quality and multi-tasking/technology use. The present study aimed to examine the interrelationship between these variables in a group of university students. It was hypothesized that students who reported higher caffeine consumption would report lower subjective sleep quality. This relationship would be demonstrated by a significant positive correlation between level of caffeine consumption determined by Caffeine Consumption Questionairre (mg/week) (Modified from Landrum, 1992) and score on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (a higher score indicates poorer sleep quality) (Buysse et al., 1989). It was also predicted that students who were evening-types would consume a greater amount of c affeine than morning-type students. This would be demonstrated by a significant negative correlation between Morningness-Eveningness Questionairre (a lower score indicates a preference for eveningness) (Horne stberg, 1976) and daily caffeine consumption (mg/week) . Next, it was predicted that evening types would experience more subjective sleep problems than morning types. More specifically, there would be a significant negative relationship between scores on the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index score. The fourth prediction was that students who scored higher on the Nighttime Activities (Multi-tasking) Index would also consume a greater amount of caffeine. Specifically, there would be a positive relationship between Caffeine Consumption Questionnaire score and Nighttime Activities (Multi-Tasking) Index score. Finally, we predicted that students who were evening-types would use more technology between 21:00 and 06:00. This would be indicated b y a significant negative relationship between Morningness-Eveningness score and Nighttime Activities (Multi-Tasking) Index score. Method Participants Participants in this study were 49 undergraduate students enrolled in a Sleep and Arousal course and Trent University. Student age ranged from 20-31 years. Mean age of participants was 22.12 years (SD 2.26). 9 males and 39 females participated in this study. Materials Materials used were 4 established questionairres. The Morningness-Eveningness Questionairre (Horne stberg, 1976) was used to determine an individuals chronotype (preferred or peak time of day (morning, evening or neutral)). Scores range from 16-86. Questionnaires were scored as follows: (16-30) Definitely Evening, (31-41) Moderately Evening, (42-58) Neutral, (59-69) Moderately Morning, (70-86) Definitely Morning. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index was used to measure students overall sleep quality (Buysse et al. 1989). Scores range from 0-21, with lower scores indicating better sleep quality. A modified version of the Caffeine Consumption Questionairre (Landrum, 1992) was used to estimate weekly caffeine consumption in students. Participants indicate how much caffeine they consume in the morning, afternoon, evening, and night time. Students also indicate the source of caffeine (small coffee, medium tea, soft drink, large coffee). The caffeine content of each type and size of drink was determined by Calamaro et al. (2009) and Roehrs and Roth (2008). Finally, the Night-Time Activities Questionnaire, modified from Calamaro et al. (2009) was used to measure the amount of time students spent doing various technology based activities in the evening (9:00pm 6:00am). Activities such as watching television, and using the computer were included). A multi-tasking index was then created by adding the total hours of time spent on all tasks and dividing this number by 9 (the total hours between 9:00 pm and 6:00 am). A student who engages in 9 hours of activity in that 9 hour period would receive a score of 1.0 (A score greater than 1 is possible, for example, if a student was listening to music and using the computer at the same time). Procedure Participants filled out all four questionnaires during a scheduled lecture period. The Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire and the Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index were scored by students after completion, while the other two questionnaires were scored by the instructor. Results Caffeine Consumption Questionairre The mean level of caffeine consumption in milligrams per week for the morning (06:00 12:00) period was 685.63 (SD = 1032.21). Mean afternoon (12:00 18:00) period caffeine consumption was 394.90 (SD = 554.39). The mean level of evening (18:00 02:00) period caffeine consumption in these university students was 320.49 (SD = 355.48) and mean night time (02:00 06:00) caffeine consumption was 24.84 (SD = 64.49) milligrams per week. Mean caffeine consumption total in milligrams per week was 1425.86 (SD = 1737.82). These results were similar to results found by Shohet et al. in that the greatest amount of caffeine was being consumed in the morning time. There was a slightly lower level of total caffeine consumption in our study compared to the results found by Shohet et al., with a difference of 171.74 mg/week between the two studies. This amount is equivalent to about 1 cup of coffee. (MORE COMPARISON BETWEEN OURS AND SHOHET..SEE TABLE 2 IN PAPER AT BATA) The mean source of the caffeine consumed weekly in milligrams was 974.69 (SD = 1713.09) for coffee, 270.12 (SD = 338.18) for tea, 99.24 (SD = 163.39) for soft drinks, 45.06 (SD = 127.23) for energy drinks, and 36.73 (SD = 74.44) for hot chocolate. The vast majority of caffeine consumed weekly by these university students was via coffee while very little caffeine was consumed in hot chocolate. Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) The mean MEQ score was 43.59 (SD = 12.25). Scores ranged from 24 to 69. 16.33% of participants were Definitely-Evening (n= 8), 34.69% were Moderately-Evening (n=17), 36.73% were Neutral (n=18) and 12.24% were Moderately-Morning. None of the participants were Definitely-Morning types. Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) Each subscale of the PSQI has a possible score of 0-3. The mean Subjective Sleep Quality score was 1.37 (SD = 0.83). The mean Sleep Onset Latency score was 1.84 (SD = 1.01). The mean Sleep Duration score was 0.78 (SD = 0.82). The mean Habitual Sleep Efficiency score was 0.69 (SD = 0.98). The mean Sleep Disturbances score was 1.55 (SD = 1.14). The mean Use of Sleeping Medication was 0.37 (SD = 0.83), and the mean Daytime Dysfunction score was 1.35 (SD = 0.83). The mean total score on the PSQI was 7.78 (SD = 3.93). According to Buysse et al. (1988), a score greater than 5 indicates that someone is a poor sleeper. The mean score of our participants was within the range of abnormal. The greatest amount of sleep disturbance came from high sleep onset latency, while the least disruptive factor was reliance on the use of sleep medications. Night-Time Activities Questionnaire (NTAQ) The mean data for the activities included on the NTAQ are included in figure 1. The mean multi-tasking index of these night time activities is 0.60 (SD = 0.29). The range of multi-tasking index scores was 0.12 1.39. A score of 0.60 means that the participant was doing some combination of the activities on the NTAQ for 5.40 hours. (0.60 x 9 hours = 5.40) of the 9 hour sleep period. In the case of the score of 1.39, the participant was engaging in an activity on the NTIQ for 12.51 hours. Since the measured period is only 9 hours, this participant was engaging in more than one activity at a time, for example, listening to MP3 player and online computer use. Results of Correlation Analysis There was a significant negative correlation between MEQ and Multi-Tasking Index. Morning types tended to have lower Multi-Tasking Index scores than Evening types, r = -.32, p Table 1 Correlations found between Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ), Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Multi-tasking Index, and Caffeine Consumption Questionnaire. . Â ­_ MEQ PSQI Multi-Tasking . MEQ score -.16 -.32* PSQI score .03 Caffeine Consumption Coffee -.06 .31* -.06 Tea .20 -.20 -.08 Hot Chocolate .13 -.18 .08 Soft Drinks -.30* .02 .08 Energy Drinks -.14 .20 .07 . Total Caffeine -.06 .25 .01 . * p Discussion We predicted that participants who consumed a greater level of caffeine would have higher scores, indicating poorer sleep quality, on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Although total caffeine consumption level failed to predict a higher sleep quality score, there was a significant negative correlation between level of coffee consumption and PSQI. Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire Score was predicted to negatively correlate with score on the Caffeine Consumption Questionnaire. Total caffeine consumption did not significantly correlate with MEQ score. Level of caffeinated soft drink consumption did significantly correlate with MEQ with evening types consuming greater amounts of caffeinated soft drinks than morning-types. It was predicted that evening types would report more sleep problems via the PSQI. This correlation failed to reach significance in our analysis. There is no significant difference between Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index score in evening-types from morning-types. We predicted that students who scored higher on the Nighttime Activities (Multi-tasking) Index would also consume a greater amount of caffeine. The analysis revealed no significant relationship between these variables. Our final prediction was that evening-types would engage in a greater level of technology use in the evening, as indicated by a significant negative relationship between MEQ score and Multi-Tasking Index. There was a significant relationship between MEQ and Multi-Tasking Index. Evening types did tend to engage in more activities involving technology between the hours of 2100 and 0600 than morning-types, as predicted. Using The Caffeine Consumption Questionnaire and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index as a measure, consumption of higher levels of caffeine did not did predict poorer sleep quality. Although several studies found that caffeine consumption increased sleep onset latency, decreased total sleep time and increased daytime sleepiness, we did not find that high levels of total caffeine consumption predicted a significantly poorer sleep quality score (Roehrs Roth, 2008). Although total caffeine consumption and PSQI were not correlated, caffeinated coffee consumption did predict a poorer sleep quality score. This contrasts findings by Sanchez-Ortunga et al. (2005) in which up to eight cups of coffee consumed by regular coffee drinkers did not result in a significantly lower TST. Although it should be taken into consideration that TST is only one component of the PSQI. Contrary to our findings, Gianotti et al. (2002) found that Evening-types tended to consume a greater amount of caffeine than morning types. Ana Aden (1994) also found that daily caffeine consumption increased as preference for evening activity increased. Although these results contrast our findings, we did find a slight but significant relationship between consumption of caffeinated soft drinks and preference for evening. Gianotti et al. (2002) also found that evening-type adolescents reported poorer subjective sleep quality than morning types. These evening-type adolescents also showed a more irregular sleep schedule. Evening types showed greater daytime sleepiness, increased frequency of falling asleep during the day, and other indications of poor sleep quality (Gianotti et al., 2002). Contrary to these findings, we found no relationship between PSQI score and chronotype. Although Calamero et al. (2009) found that those reporting an increased multi-tasking index score also consumed greater amounts of caffeine, we found no relationship between the two. We did, however, find a significant relationship between chronotype and multi-tasking index. Evening types tended to engage in more technologically based activities between 2100 and 0600. There was no previous research available examining the relationship between chronotype and Night-time Activities/Multi-tasking Index. This may be a possible area of further investigation. One limitation of this study is the lack of diversity in the sample. The participants were a relatively small group of undergraduate psychology students between the age of 20-31. The small sample size may have made it difficult for trends in the data to reach significant levels. Also, chronotype and caffeine consumption have been shown to change over the lifetime, however, we were able to examine only a small window of young adulthood, leaving little opportunity for drastic variations. Also, being students, many of these participants may have schedules which vary drastically from day to day, as well as an increased frequency of engaging in late night activities with peers. These behaviours may have a confounding influence on many sleep variables. Thus, these findings may not be generalized to the population. Re-examining the same material with a larger and more diverse sample may yield more helpful results. This would be fairly simple to do since the questionnaires may be filled out with little guidance or instruction, and simply be distributed and returned by post or electronically administered. Another limitation is that the entire data collection procedure relied completely on student self-reports. The accuracy of these self-evaluations of sleep quality, sleep latency, and level of caffeine consumption may not have been accurate. Some questionnaires were also self scored, leaving open the opportunity for error in calculations. Although much of our analysis of caffeine consumptions effect on sleep quality failed to reach statistical significance, the trends in the data indicate that caffeine does likely detrimentally influence sleep quality. As previous research has shown, the impact caffeine may have on daytime functioning and sleep may be greater than many people realize. Caffeine consumption may be leading to a poorer nights sleep, and this less recuperative sleep subsequently may lead to more caffeine consumption the following day to compensate for the caffeine disrupted sleep of the night before. One can see how this may result in a caffeine/poor sleep cycle. Another interesting finding was the correlation between chronotype and Multi-tasking index score. It would be interesting to investigate whether this relationship is due to evening-types engaging in more night-time activities in order to simply occupy the time between when they believe they should be sleeping and when they are able to sleep, or if the opportunity to occupy the mind and stave off sleep, and disrupting their natural activity time preference. Although we did not specifically make any predictions regarding Multi-tasking Index and PSQI, it is interesting to note that there was no relationship between Multi-tasking Index and PSQI. Research by Calamaro et al. (2009) found that a high Multi-tasking Index was related to sleep problems like difficulty falling asleep, decreased total sleep time and daytime sleepiness. There was no relationship between chronotype and sleep quality in our study, despite findings of a significant relationship by Gianotti et al. (2002). Although the trend in our data leaned towards a similar relationship, it did not reach significance. The difference in our findings compared to Gianotti et al. (2008) may have to do with factors unique to adolescents. In summary, there is a significant relationship between Multi tasking and chronotype, PSQI and coffee consumption level. All other comparisons failed to reach significance. The trend in the data indicate that caffeine does indeed detrimentally effect sleep quality, but the degree of influence it has remains unclear. References Adan, A. (1994). Chronotype and personality factors in the daily consumption of alcohol and psychostimulants. Addiction, 89(4), 455-462. Buysse, D.J., Reynolds, C.F., Monk, T.H., Berman, S.R., Kupfer,D.J. (1989). The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI): A new instrument for psychiatric research and practice. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193-213. Calamaro, C.J., Mason, T.B., Ratcliffe, S.J. (2009). Adolescents living the 24/7 lifestyle: effects of caffeine and technology on sleep duration and daytime functioning. Pediatrics, 123(6), 1005-1010. Gianotti, F., Cortesi, F., Sebastiani, T., Ottaviano, S. (2002). Circadian preference, sleep and daytime behaviour in adolescence. Journal of Sleep Research, 11(3), 191- 199. Julien, R.M. (2005). Caffeine and nicotine. In A primer of drug action. (10th ed., pp. 225-251). New York: Worth Publishers. Landolt H.P., Werth, E., Borbely, A.A., Dijk, D.J. (1995). Caffeine intake (200 mg) in the morning affects human sleep and EEG power spectra at night. Brain Research, 675(1-2), 67-74. Landrum, R.E. (1992). College students use of caffeine and its relationship to personality. College Student Journal, 26(2), 151-155. Orbeta, R.L., Overpeck, M.D., Ramcharran, D., Kogan, M.D., Ladsky, R. (2006). High caffeine intake in adolescents: associations with difficulty sleeping and feeling tired in the morning. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(4), 451-453. Roehrs, T., Roth, T. (2008). Caffeine: Sleep and daytime sleepiness. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 12(2), 153-162. Sanchez-Ortuno, M., Moore, N., Taillard, J., Valtat, C., Legar, D., Bioulac, B., Philip.,P. (2005). Sleep duration and caffeine consumption in a French middle-aged working population. Sleep Medicine, 6(3), 247-251. Shohet, K.L., Landrum, R.E. (2001). Caffeine consumption questionnaire: a standardized measure for caffeine consumption in undergraduate students. Psychology Reports

The Failure of the War on Drugs Essay -- Critical Thinking Essays

In the early 1980s, policymakers and law enforcement officials stepped up efforts to combat the trafficking and use of illicit drugs. This was the popular â€Å"war on drugs,† hailed by conservatives and liberals alike as a means to restore order and hope to communities and families plagued by anti-social or self-destructive pathologies. By reducing illicit drug use, many claimed, the drug war would significantly reduce the rate of serious nondrug crimes - robbery, assault, rape, homicide and the like. Has the drug war succeeded in doing so? In Illicit Drugs and Crime, Bruce L. Benson and David W. Rasmussen (Professors of Economics, Florida State University, and Research Fellows, the Independent Institute), reply with a resounding no. Not only has the drug war failed to reduce violent and property crime but, by shifting criminal justice resources (the police, courts, prisons, probation officers, etc.) away from directly fighting such crime, the drug war has put citizens’ lives and property at greater risk, Benson and Rasmussen contend. â€Å"Getting tough on drugs inevitably translates into getting soft on nondrug crime,† they write. â€Å"When a decision is made to wage a ‘war on drugs,’ other things that criminal justice resources might do have to be sacrificed.† To support this conclusion, Benson and Rasmussen compare data on drug law enforcement and crime trends between states, and debunk numerous misconceptions about drug use and criminality. One of the most prevalent misconceptions, Benson and Rasmussen, contend is the notion that a large percentage of drug users commit nondrug crimes, what might be called the â€Å"drugs-cause-crime† assumption implicit in the government’s drug-war strategy. If true, then an effective crackdown on ... ...easy† to obtain rose by about 20 percent. This failure is due in large part, Benson and Rasmussen explain, to drug entrepreneurs’ adoption of new production techniques, new products, and new marketing strategies in response to greater law enforcement. Their â€Å"innovations† include lengthening the drug distribution chain and using younger drug pushers and runners (to reduce the risk of arrest and punishment), increasing domestic drug production (to avoid the risk of seizure at the border), smuggling into the country less marijuana and more cocaine (which is harder to detect), development of â€Å"crack† cocaine (a low-cost substitute for higher priced powdered cocaine and for marijuana, which the drug war made harder to obtain), and development of drugs with greater potency (because they are less bulky and because punishment is based on a drug’s weight, not its potency).

A Tale of an Hour

The cold gray steel of the axe arced one last time through the air, the pick burrowed itself one last time into the frozen blanket of snow, and the hand that held it took a final pull, to ensure a secure placement. After a brief pause, George Mallory took a deep breath, and pulled himself over the crux, and onto the top. Slowly, shakily, he stood up, and took a look around, the first time American eyes had seen the world from this vantage point. This was it. He had done it. He was the first American to ever climb Everest. The sky was a most crystalline blue, and clear too, except for the small puffy white clouds in the distant East. George had the most incredible view ever seen in all directions; he could see for hundreds, probably even a thousand miles. If only others could see this! he said to himself. If only he had brought a camera, not only would he be able to show the human race the true beauty still found in nature, he could prove that he had actually accomplished the feat. Hopefully his friends down below could see him on the top. Mallory briefly thought of waving, but the notion quickly passed when he realized the absoluteness of his fatigue. He was exhausted, plain and simple. Even after deciding against bringing a stove or any other nighttime equipment, his pack still weighed in at about 40 lbs, because of the extra oxygen bottles he picked up from a discarded pile. In fact, George just wanted to sit down. He knew though that if he did, he might never again get up. He did however remove the cumbersome pack and sling it to the icy ground. Digging into the main pouch, George hand unveiled a small American flag attached to an aluminum pole. With the side of his ice axe, he pounded the pole into the crust, forever designating that he had soloed the highest mountain on the planet. This task had taken nearly ten minutes, since every swing of the makeshift hammer was like wielding a twenty-pound maul. He reached for his next oxygen bottle, changed canisters, and took a few deep breaths of the life giving gas. After completing the task, Mallory once again surveyed his surroundings. He stopped when he go to the East. The once distant fluffy white clouds were closer. Much closer. And the innocent white had begun to turn an angry gray. No longer an innocent few, the clouds had grown in numbers, and anvil-shaped thunderheads were rapidly forming. This is not good, he thought to himself. This is very not good. I should get back down to camp six. Maybe even five, if possible. George turned back to the way he came up and began the agonizingly slow descent. Step after step was torture. Knowing he had to hurry was only making his heart pump faster, worsening the situation. Breathing harder and harder, Mallory had to take a few second break after almost every step, until his pulse slowed enough that he could divert a portion of his brain to downward progress. Pick. Step. Breathe. Breathe. Breathe. Repeat. Sensing the world around him darkening, he looked over his shoulder at the peak. The first cloud had breached the western side of the mountain, his side. This could only mean one thing. Don t look back any more. George made that mental note to himself. A few minutes later, he felt the first snowflake gently brush his cheek. Realizing he had only reached about 27,000 feet, Mallory now knew that he had to move. He quickened his pace, nearly achieving a slow walk. Step. Step. Step. Step. Breathe. Step. St– The old frozen leather tying the crampon to his foot snapped, his foot slid forward, and George was on the move, this time at breakneck pace. On May 2, 1999, Eric Simonson radioed into base camp to report that Dave Hahn, Tap Richards, Jake Norton, Andy Politz, and Conrad Anker had located the body of George Mallory on the side of Mt. Everest, where he perished on June 8th, 1924.

The Different Meanings and Uses of Economic Efficiency

The Different Meanings and Uses of Economic Efficiency Generally speaking, economic efficiency refers to a market outcome that is optimal for society. Â  In the context of welfare economics, an outcome that is economically efficient is one that maximizes the size of the economic value pie that a market creates for society. Â  In an economically efficient market outcome, there are no available Pareto improvements to be made, and the outcome satisfies what is known as the Kaldor-Hicks criterion. More specifically, economic efficiency is a term typically used in microeconomics when discussing production. Production of a unit of goods is considered to be economically efficient when that unit of goods is produced at the lowest possible cost. Economics by Parkin and Bade give a useful introduction to the difference between economic efficiency and technological efficiency: There are two concepts of efficiency: Technological efficiency occurs when it is not possible to increase output without increasing inputs. Economic efficiency occurs when the cost of producing a given output is as low as possible.Technological efficiency is an engineering matter. Given what is technologically feasible, something can or cannot be done. Economic efficiency depends on the prices of the factors of production. Something that is technologically efficient may not be economically efficient. But something that is economically efficient is always technologically efficient. A key point to understand is the idea that economic efficiency occurs when the cost of producing a given output is as low as possible. Theres a hidden assumption here, and that is the assumption that all else being equal. A change that lowers the quality of the good while at the same time lowers the cost of production does not increase economic efficiency. The concept of economic efficiency is only relevant when the quality of goods being produced is unchanged.